Procrastination: What Psychology Research Describes About Causes and Interventions
Procrastination is a common behavior with substantial research attention. This summary pulls from psychology research, productivity resources, and published studies to describe what procrastination is, what causes contribute to it, what effects it has on outcomes, and what approaches evidence supports.
This article does not claim personal experience with chronic procrastination. The information below reflects what published psychology research and resources describe.
What Procrastination Is
The APA’s procrastination resources define procrastination as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. Reviews consistently note that procrastination is distinct from simple prioritization — it’s delaying tasks one has decided to do.
The published research consistently identifies procrastination as:
- Voluntary rather than forced
- Associated with negative consequences the person anticipates
- Not equivalent to poor time management (though often confused)
- Often accompanied by discomfort during the delay
Types of Procrastination
Psychology research consistently identifies several types:
Arousal procrastination: Reviews consistently note that some people procrastinate because they prefer the pressure of last-minute work, which they find exciting or stimulating.
Avoidant procrastination: Reviews note that some people procrastinate to avoid the negative emotions associated with a task (fear of failure, anxiety about evaluation).
Decisional procrastination: Reviews consistently note that some procrastination involves difficulty making decisions, with the delay extending until forced to choose.
Revenge or spite procrastination: Reviews note that procrastination can be a response to perceived unfairness or external pressure, particularly in academic and workplace contexts.
What the Research Identifies as Causes
Published research on procrastination has identified several contributing factors:
Task aversion: Reviews consistently note that tasks perceived as unpleasant, boring, frustrating, or anxiety-provoking are more likely to be procrastinated.
Low self-efficacy: Reviews note that low belief in one’s ability to complete a task successfully is associated with procrastination, particularly for challenging tasks.
Perfectionism: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism, particularly the maladaptive form associated with self-criticism, is associated with procrastination through fear of imperfect performance.
Impulsivity: Reviews note that higher impulsivity is associated with procrastination, particularly when distractions are available.
Depression and anxiety: Reviews consistently note that clinical depression and anxiety disorders are associated with procrastination as a symptom.
Executive function challenges: Reviews note that conditions affecting executive function (ADHD, etc.) are associated with procrastination, though procrastination occurs in many people without these conditions.
Value misalignment: Reviews consistently note that tasks perceived as misaligned with personal values or goals are more likely to be procrastinated.
What the Evidence Supports
Published research on procrastination outcomes includes:
Academic effects: Reviews consistently note that procrastination is associated with lower academic performance, increased stress, and worse health outcomes for students.
Workplace effects: Reviews note that procrastination is associated with lower productivity, more workplace stress, and reduced career outcomes.
Health effects: Reviews consistently note that procrastination is associated with poorer health behaviors, more stress-related health issues, and fewer preventive health behaviors.
Mental health effects: Reviews note that procrastination is associated with increased depression, anxiety, and lower life satisfaction in some studies, though causal direction is complex.
Financial effects: Reviews consistently note that procrastination is associated with worse financial outcomes, including delayed retirement savings and higher debt.
What the Evidence Does Not Support
There are claims about procrastination that outrun the evidence:
- That procrastination is primarily a time management problem. Reviews consistently note that procrastination has emotional and cognitive components that time management alone doesn’t address.
- That willpower alone solves procrastination. Reviews note that environmental and emotional factors matter more than willpower for most people.
- That all delay is procrastination. Reviews consistently note that some delay is appropriate prioritization and not problematic.
Common Approaches
Psychology resources consistently identify several evidence-based approaches:
Cognitive-behavioral approaches: Reviews consistently note that CBT techniques including cognitive restructuring (addressing unhelpful thoughts about tasks) and behavioral activation (starting tasks despite discomfort) have evidence for reducing procrastination.
Implementation intentions: Reviews note that forming specific if-then plans for when and where to engage in tasks is associated with reduced procrastination.
Task restructuring: Reviews consistently note that breaking large tasks into smaller, less aversive subtasks reduces procrastination.
Implementation intentions with rewards: Reviews note that pairing specific tasks with immediate rewards is associated with better task initiation.
Environmental design: Reviews consistently note that modifying the environment to reduce distractions and cues for avoidance supports task initiation.
Self-compassion approaches: Reviews note that treating procrastination with self-criticism tends to perpetuate it, while self-compassion supports engagement.
Common Difficulties
The published research consistently identifies several common difficulties:
Initial task engagement: Reviews consistently note that the hardest part of procrastination is often initiating the task, with sustained work once started being more manageable.
Emotional avoidance: Reviews note that procrastination often serves to avoid negative emotions, and addressing the emotions is necessary for sustained change.
Perfectionism: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism underlies much procrastination, and that addressing perfectionism is part of effective intervention.
All-or-nothing thinking: Reviews note that perfectionism-related all-or-nothing thinking can undermine progress and lead to abandoning efforts after setbacks.
Reward delay: Reviews consistently note that many tasks have delayed rewards, making initial motivation difficult.
Combining with Other Approaches
The published research consistently identifies that procrastination interventions work best when combined with other approaches:
CBT + environmental design: Reviews consistently note that combining cognitive approaches with environmental changes addresses both the thought patterns and the situational triggers.
Implementation intentions + rewards: Reviews note that pairing specific situational plans with immediate rewards improves adherence.
Task restructuring + accountability: Reviews consistently note that combining smaller tasks with social accountability supports sustained progress.
Self-compassion + task engagement: Reviews note that combining self-compassion approaches with structured task engagement is more effective than either alone.
Considerations for Specific Populations
Reviews consistently identify some population-specific considerations:
Students: Reviews note that academic procrastination has been extensively studied, with interventions showing effects in randomized trials.
Workers: Reviews consistently note that workplace procrastination is associated with various outcomes, with organizational interventions showing some effects.
Chronic procrastinators: Reviews note that chronic procrastination (regular across many domains) may require more intensive interventions than occasional procrastination.
Procrastination with depression: Reviews consistently note that procrastination occurring with depression may require addressing the depression first.
Procrastination with ADHD: Reviews note that procrastination related to ADHD may benefit from both ADHD treatment and specific procrastination interventions.
What the Evidence Does Not Support
There are claims about procrastination interventions that outrun the evidence:
- That any single intervention works for everyone. Reviews consistently note substantial individual variation.
- That willpower is the primary solution. Reviews note that environmental and emotional factors matter more than willpower for most people.
- That procrastination indicates laziness. Reviews consistently note that procrastination is associated with emotional and cognitive factors, not laziness.
When Professional Help Is Needed
Mental health resources consistently recommend professional evaluation when:
- Procrastination significantly impairs academic, work, or life functioning
- Self-help approaches have not been sufficient
- Procrastination is accompanied by other mental health concerns (depression, anxiety)
- Procrastination may be related to attention or executive function conditions
- Procrastination is associated with significant distress
Reviews consistently note that procrastination is one of several areas where therapy (particularly CBT) has documented effectiveness.
Limitations
Some limitations in the published research on procrastination:
- Many studies are in academic or workplace settings; generalization to other contexts is sometimes limited.
- Most studies are short-term; long-term effects of interventions are less studied.
- Individual variation in effective approaches is substantial.
- Cultural variations in attitudes toward procrastination are not always well represented.
Sources and Further Reading
- The APA’s procrastination resources.
- Published procrastination research, indexed in PubMed Central.
- The American Heart Association’s behavior change resources.
These references are publicly verifiable, and the claims in this article are drawn from this kind of public material. No claim is based on personal experience with chronic procrastination.