Perfectionism: What Psychology Research Describes About Causes and Effects
Perfectionism is a personality tendency that has received substantial research attention. This summary pulls from psychology research, mental health resources, and published studies to describe what perfectionism is, what causes contribute to it, and what approaches evidence supports for addressing maladaptive forms.
This article does not claim personal experience with perfectionism. The information below reflects what published psychological research and resources describe.
What Perfectionism Is
Psychology research consistently describes perfectionism as a multidimensional construct involving setting high standards and being highly self-critical when those standards are not met. Reviews consistently note that perfectionism is not inherently negative — some forms are associated with achievement and motivation, while other forms are associated with distress and dysfunction.
The most commonly cited multidimensional model, developed by Paul Hewitt and Gordon Flett, identifies:
Self-oriented perfectionism: Setting high standards for oneself.
Other-oriented perfectionism: Setting high standards for others.
Socially prescribed perfectionism: Believing that others have high standards for oneself.
Reviews consistently note that socially prescribed perfectionism is most consistently associated with distress, while self-oriented perfectionism shows mixed associations depending on other factors.
What the Research Identifies as Causes
The published research consistently identifies several contributing factors:
Parenting styles: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism is associated with parental expectations that are conditional on achievement, criticism focused on mistakes rather than efforts, and modeling of perfectionism by parents.
Cultural factors: Reviews note that cultures emphasizing achievement and individual excellence can contribute to perfectionism. Some research suggests perfectionism has been increasing in recent decades, particularly among young people.
Temperament: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism has a heritable component, with twin studies suggesting moderate genetic influence.
Traumatic experiences: Reviews note that perfectionism can develop as a protective response to trauma or chaotic environments, where maintaining perfect control over one’s actions might feel protective.
Social learning: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism can be learned through observation of others, including peers, teachers, and media figures.
Achievement contexts: Reviews note that competitive environments (academic, athletic, professional) can reinforce perfectionism through selection and reinforcement of perfectionist traits.
What the Evidence Supports
Published research on perfectionism includes:
Mental health associations: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism is associated with depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and burnout. The associations are moderate to strong.
Physical health effects: Reviews note some evidence that perfectionism is associated with physical health effects including cardiovascular reactivity and immune function, though the literature is more limited than for mental health outcomes.
Achievement paradox: Reviews consistently note that despite being motivated by achievement, perfectionism is often associated with worse rather than better performance in some contexts, particularly when perfectionism is maladaptive.
Treatment response: Reviews note that maladaptive perfectionism responds to several evidence-based interventions, with effects typically moderate.
What the Evidence Does Not Support
There are claims about perfectionism that outrun the evidence:
- That perfectionism is always pathological. Reviews consistently note that adaptive perfectionism is associated with positive outcomes in some contexts.
- That any specific parenting style always produces perfectionism. Reviews note the development is multifactorial.
- That perfectionism can be eliminated quickly. Reviews consistently note that perfectionism develops over years and changes gradually.
Common Manifestations
Psychology resources consistently identify several common manifestations of perfectionism:
Work and achievement: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism shows up as excessive checking, difficulty completing tasks (because nothing is good enough), procrastination, and avoidance of new challenges.
Relationships: Reviews note that perfectionism in relationships can involve excessive criticism of partners, difficulty accepting others’ flaws, and relational dissatisfaction.
Health behaviors: Reviews consistently note that perfectionism can interfere with health behaviors through all-or-nothing thinking (e.g., missing a workout leads to abandoning the routine).
Daily functioning: Reviews note that perfectionism can interfere with everyday tasks through excessive time on details, difficulty making decisions, and chronic dissatisfaction.
Common Comorbid Conditions
The research consistently identifies perfectionism as a transdiagnostic factor associated with:
- Anxiety disorders: Particularly generalized anxiety and social anxiety.
- Depression: Reviews consistently note strong associations, particularly with the “self-critical” form of depression.
- Eating disorders: Reviews note perfectionism is a known risk factor, particularly for anorexia nervosa.
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Reviews note overlap with OCD symptoms and comorbidity.
- Chronic fatigue and pain: Reviews note perfectionism may delay help-seeking and contribute to pushing through illness.
Common Approaches
Clinical resources consistently identify several evidence-based approaches:
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): Reviews consistently note that CBT addresses perfectionism through cognitive restructuring (challenging all-or-nothing thinking), behavioral experiments (testing predictions), and graded exposure to imperfection.
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT): Reviews note that ACT addresses perfectionism through acceptance of difficult thoughts and feelings while pursuing valued action, including willingness to make mistakes.
Compassion-focused therapy (CFT): Reviews consistently note that CFT specifically addresses self-criticism, a core feature of maladaptive perfectionism, through developing self-compassion.
Behavioral experiments: Reviews note that testing specific predictions (e.g., “If I submit this imperfect work, terrible consequences will follow”) is often effective for challenging perfectionism’s underlying beliefs.
Mindfulness-based approaches: Reviews consistently note that mindfulness practices can help with the rumination and self-criticism aspects of perfectionism.
Common Self-Help Approaches
Mental health resources consistently identify several self-help approaches that have some evidence base:
Identifying and challenging “should” statements: Reviews note that rigid rules about how things “should” be are common in perfectionism and can be examined and modified.
Behavioral experiments for perfectionism: Reviews note that predicting outcomes, acting on imperfect attempts, and observing actual results is a core CBT technique adapted for perfectionism.
Self-compassion practices: Reviews note that developing self-compassion (treating oneself with the kindness one would offer a friend) is associated with reduced perfectionism and related distress.
Recognizing all-or-nothing thinking: Reviews note that identifying all-or-nothing patterns (perfect work vs. complete failure) is a first step in changing these patterns.
Gradual exposure to imperfection: Reviews note that deliberately practicing imperfection in low-stakes situations is a way to build tolerance for not meeting one’s own standards.
Limitations
Some limitations in the published research on perfectionism:
- Most research is cross-sectional; longitudinal causal claims are limited.
- Cultural variations in what constitutes adaptive versus maladaptive perfectionism are not always well represented.
- Long-term outcomes of perfectionism interventions are less studied than short-term.
- Individual variation in perfectionism’s causes and effects is substantial.
When Professional Help Is Needed
Mental health resources consistently recommend professional evaluation when:
- Perfectionism is associated with significant distress
- Self-help approaches have not been sufficient
- Perfectionism co-occurs with other mental health concerns
- Perfectionism significantly impairs daily functioning
- Physical health is being affected
Reviews consistently note that perfectionism, particularly when comorbid with other conditions, is well-treated by evidence-based therapies.
Sources and Further Reading
- The APA’s resources on perfectionism.
- Published perfectionism research, indexed in PubMed Central.
- The NIMH’s resources on anxiety and related conditions.
These references are publicly verifiable, and the claims in this article are drawn from this kind of public material. No claim is based on personal experience with perfectionism.